Centre of Communication Studies

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The Language Crisis in Tanzania: The Myth of English versus Education
(Mkuki na Nyota Publishers, 1997) Qorro, Martha
The book is based on a survey on students’ reading competence in English language at secondary school level in Tanzania. First, from the mid 1970s there has been a general dissatisfaction with the educational standards of school leavers at all levels of education in Tanzania. Secondly, there has also been concern that the levels of English language proficiency have been falling. A number of important studies on language in education have suggested a relationship between the two problems; and that since students did not understand English, the medium of instruction; they are unable to understand subjects taught through this medium. The situation in Tanzania is one where the government directs that the English language shall be the medium of instruction while admitting that students do not understand English; where teachers have to teach in Kiswahili to enable students to understand the subject matter; but because of policy requirements, they have to set examinations in English; and where students – because they received most of their instruction in Kiswahili, fail to do well in examinations which are conducted through the English language. This is what we refer to in our book as the language crisis.
The Role and Place of Language in Education and Society: The Case of Kiswahili and English in Tanzania
(Papers in Education and Development, 1997) Qorro, Prof Martha
The role a language plays in society needs to be reflected by the language in education policy. In other words, the language policy needs to align its choice of language in education, in particular the language of instruction to the status or role that language plays in society. Lack of harmony or alignment between the role a language is given in education and its status or role in society has consequences. These range from ineffective language teaching methods, lack of learning across the curriculum, missing link between school and the wider society, ineffective teaching and learning of English language, as well as ineffective preparation of English language teachers. For genuine education to take place, policy makers need to formulate realistic language in education policy in which the status given to English in education is determined by its role in the Tanzanian society.
Matatizo ya Kutumia Kiingereza Kufundishia Katika Shule za Sekondari na Vyuo vya Juu Tanzania
(Kioo cha Lugha, 2005) Qorro, Martha
Makala hii inaeleza matatizo yanayotokana na kutumia Kiingereza kufundishia katika shule za sekondari na vyuo nchini Tanzania. Makala inaanza kwa kufafanua tofauti zilizopo kati ya kufundisha lugha kama somo kwa lengo la kupanua mawanda ya mawasiliano; na ktumia lugha kama nyenzo ya kutolea maarifa. Makala imebainisha matatizo ya kijamii, kiutamaduni, kiuchumi, kielimu na kiakili yanayotokana na kutumia Kiingereza kama lugha ya kufundishia. Katika kubainisha matatizo hayo; makala imetumea vielelezo mbalimbali kutoka kwa walengwa wa viwango tofauti vya elimu; kuanzia kidato cha kwanza hadi chuo kikuu. Makala inahitimisha kwa kupendekeza kuwa ni vema kutumia lugha inayoeleweka; lugha ya jamii pana, Kiswahili, ili wanafunzi waweze kupata maarifa na ujuzi; sambamba na hilo, kufundisha Kiingereza kwa ufasaha zaidi kama lugha (bila kujitegemeza kuwa lugha ya kufundishia) – kama inavyofundishwa Kifaransa au Kichina.
Language of Instruction and its Effects on the Quality of Education
(Papers in Education and Development, 2007) Qorro, Martha
Various studies have been undertaken in Tanzania on the language of instruction at the post-primary education level since the late 19790s. However, most of these studies do not relate the language of instruction issue to the quality of education. This paper attempts to address this shortfall by raising some questions: What is quality education? Who sets standards for quality education and according to whose criteria? Is quality education universal/global or local/societal? It is argued in the paper that the question of quality of education and the language of instruction factor are inseparable.
Testing students’ ability to learn through English during the transition from primary to secondary schooling
(Sense Publishers, 2010) Qorro, Martha
This book chapter is based on a research conducted under the LOITASA (Language of Instruction in Tanzania and South Africa) project. An assumption prevails among policy makers in Tanzania that students entering secondary school are proficient in English, having learnt it as a subject for five years from Standard 3 to Standard 7. However, research finding do not support this assumption; instead findings indicate that students entering secondary education are not sufficiently competent in English to study across the curriculum through the English medium. Students however, are reasonably good at written communication in Kiswahili; unfortunately, the ‘English Only’ policy that is being used is predicated upon outmoded theories of second/foreign language acquisition, which discourage code-switching and fail to recognise the nexus between improved first language competence and the successful development of a foreign language. The quality of instruction in English is further hampered by the lack of physical facilities of curricular materials and of time.
The Challenges of Teaching English in Africa: With Reference to Tanzania Public Secondary Schools
(UTAFITI, 2011) Qorro, Martha
English Language Teaching (ELT) in Anglophone Africa is faced with various challenges, some of which have been overlooked. Among these is lack of clarity on the status given to English when making important decisions on language planning and policy. This has led to unrealistic objectives of ELT, inappropriate teaching and learning materials, and inadequate teaching methods. This paper examines the different contexts in which English language is taught, in order to determine, at policy level, what objects are realistic and what methods and materials are appropriate for which context. This would contribute towards addressing the challenges facing ELT in Anglophone Africa. Finally, the paper calls for a need for African language planners and policy makers to go back to the drawing board and take stoke of ELT contexts and make policy on the basis of the contexts that prevail on the ground.
Assessing Compatibility between Materials Design, Assessment methods, and Competence-Based Language Teaching (CBLT) in Tanzania
(University of Dar es Salaam, 2012) Mdukula, Paschal
This study aimed to assess the extent of compatibility between materials design, assessment methods, and Competence-Based Language Teaching (CBLT) in Tanzania. It also dealt with examining the pertinent challenges that English Language teachers encounter in adopting authentic materials and assessment methods in their classrooms. This study employed both quantitative and qualitative research designs. The data for the study were collected by using survey questionnaire, face-to-face interviews, and documentary review. A total of 42 informants: school teachers, TIE, and NECTA officers, were involved in soliciting the necessary information with regard to the research problem. The findings indicate that there is minimal compatibility between materials design, assessment methods, and CBLT. The materials adopted in schools do not match with the requirements of the curriculum, also the assessment methods have not changed with the adoption of a new curriculum. The findings further revealed that there are pertinent challenges facing teachers to the extent that they impede a smooth implementation of some aspects of the curriculum. These challenges include: Huge classes, problem of funding for teaching resources, inherent wrong assumption about authentic assessment methods held by English teachers, lack of knowledge about the curriculum and heavy workload. To curb these challenges, a number of recommendations have been given by the study; one of which being the need for the government to develop partnership between universities, teachers’ colleges, and schools so as to share knowledge and disseminate the necessary information and skills for the introduced innovations in the curriculum. In order to have quality teaching/learning materials, TIE should be given a fundamental support in terms of funds so as to develop quality textbooks relevant to the curriculum instead of leaving this noble task to private authors. Also the study recommends that NECTA should adhere to what the CBLT requires in assessing learners’ achievement. Lastly, the study recommends that English language teachers should employ their professional creativity in dealing with the observed challenges instead of throwing blames to other stakeholders.
Phonological, Morphological and Semantic Adaptation of Kiswahili Nouns into Kisukuma
(University of Dar es Salaam, 2012) Joseph, Paul L.
This study addresses the phonological, morphological and semantic adaptation of borrowed Kiswahili nouns into Kisukuma. It aims at examining borrowed Kiswahili nouns into Kisukuma. It also seeks to identify and discover the phonological, morphological and semantic strategies that are involved in the adaptation of borrowed Kiswahili nouns into Kisukuma, and lastly, it assesses the impacts of borrowed Kiswahili nouns into the Kisukuma lexicon. Two approaches were used. These are Assimilation Theory and The Constraints and Repair Strategy theory. According to these theories, any borrowed word must conform into the recipient language by being assimilated into the system of the host language. Data collection was done using interviews, questionnaire, focus group discussion, observation and introspection methods. The findings show that the Kisukuma lexicon has been heavily influenced by Kiswahili. There are much more Kiswahili vocabularies in the lexicon of Kisukuma in different fields like education, agriculture, science and technology, sports, law, politics, among others. Moreover, the findings show that when borrowed Kiswahili nouns are adapted into Kisukuma, they are modified so as to conform into the Kisukuma system. This is done through several different phonological and morphological strategies that are used in the adaptation process. Semantically, some of the borrowed Kiswahili nouns are changed when they are adapted into Kisukuma. Some of the meanings of Kiswahili nouns are broadened, others are narrowed while other meanings incur a total meaning shift. Furthermore, the findings reveal that many Kisukuma speakers, especially the young generation and the elite ones, are using Kiswahili words in their conversation. As a result, most of the Kisukuma vocabularies are replaced by those of Kiswahili. Since this study focused only on one aspect, that is , only nouns, it is recommended that there is a need to conduct a study to investigate on the other aspects such as tense and aspect, adjective, inflectional morphology, derivational morphology among others because these are the issues not covered in Kisukuma, especially in Jidakama dialect.
Language Planning and Policy in Tanzania: When practice does not make perfect
(African Minds, 2013) Qorro, Martha
This chapter examines language planning and policy as stated in various policy documents and in pronouncements made by policy makers in Tanzania. The discussion relates language planning and policy to the actual practice in the schools and in the classrooms. From the policy makers’ point of view, there is a common misconception that students learn English language through practice when they use it as language of instruction in secondary schools and higher learning institutions. However, more than 50 years of this practice does not seem to have yielded impressive results, on the contrary, the level of students’ English has been falling over time. Moreover, from researchers’ point of view, practice does not always make perfect. The chapter draws on research from the LOITASA (Language of Instruction in Tanzania and South Africa) project as well as on studies from other countries in and beyond Africa to substantiate this second view. The chapter also highlights some of the inappropriate labels, choices and policy decisions that have led to serious challenges faced by English language teachers in teaching English.
Language of Instruction in Tanzania: Why Research Findings are not Heeded’ A Review of Studies on the Language of Instruction in View of the Newly Proposed Education Policy in Tanzania
(Journal of International Review of Education, 2013) Qorro, Martha
The issue of language of instruction (henceforth LOI) in Tanzania secondary education has been researched and debated for over four decades but the debate is becoming more controversial as we move into what the elite call ‘the era of globalisation’. The controversy is on which of the two languages, Kiswahili or English is the appropriate choice as LOI from secondary school to tertiary education in Tanzania. In 2009 the Ministry of Education and Vocational Training proposed a new Education and Training Policy that requires English to be LOI from nursery school to tertiary education. This proposed policy contradicts research findings and is insensitive of the sociolinguistic realities of Tanzania. As a result, I have been prompted to revise an earlier version of this paper (Qorro, 2008) and to review studies on the LOI issue in the light of the recently proposed education policy in Tanzania and to discuss the different alternatives suggested by these studies in addressing the LOI problem.
The Arusa verb system
(University of Dar es Salaam, 2013) Karani, Michael
In Maasai, there occurred linguistic changes over time, which resulted into development of dialects. The Arusa dialect has developed some distinct features in the verb systems that do not conform to all verb properties in terms of morphophonological and morphosyntactic aspects of the Maasai grammar. For that reason, a knowledge gap has developed; hence, justifying the need to investigate how Arusa verbs differ from popular or standard Maasai verbs. To examine this, a description of Arusa main and auxiliary verbs was undertaken. A qualitative research methodology was employed during data collection and analysis. Guided interviews, informal discussions and stories were recorded and analysed for discussion. The CV structure of main verbs has been illustrated, and forms and functions of auxiliary verbs were investigated. In addition, a few more auxiliary verbs were added to the previously identified ones in the lexicon. Moreover, different shapes and conjugations of irregular verbs were discussed. The findings suggest that the Arusa dialect varies morphosyntactically from other dialects, for example, in verb stems, morphemes, tone placement and verb extensions. Further studies are called for in order to examine the syntactic implications of verb extensions, verb arguments and constraints on the number of arguments licensed by various verbal suffixes.
A Unified Standard Orthography for Maa Languages: Kenya & Tanzania
(CASAS, 2014) Karani, Michael
This monograph presents the unified orthography for the Kenyan and Tanzanian Maa varieties of the Nilotic family. They include Maasai, Samburu, Ilchamus, Arusa, Parakuyo and Kisongo. Whilst it is acknowledged that there is a considerable body of literature in these varieties including grammar books, such as Tucker and Mpaayie (1955), Hollis (1905), dictionaries by Mol (1972, 1996) and Payne (2010), PhD and MA theses and story books and the Holy Bible, the orthography used so far has not been scientifically harmonised. This text presents a systematic and consistent orthography and other writing conventions based on linguistically valid principles.
The Effect of Age, Duration, and Amount of Exposure on Foreign Language Phonological Acquisition
(University of Dar es Salaam, 2015) Olomy, Joseph
This study examined the effect of age, duration, and amount of exposure to English on the acquisition of its phonology by native Swahili children and adults who learn English as a foreign language. The study used purposive, stratified and snowball sampling techniques. The data were collected from Mlimani Primary School and the University of Dar es Salaam (Mwalimu Nyerere campus) by using two experiments, namely the English vowel perception experiment and the English vowel production experiment. The data were analysed quantitatively using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) software, in addition to being analysed qualitatively. The findings indicate that the adults were more accurate than the children in perceiving and producing English vowels. Specifically, they indicate that there is a significant, positive correlation between the respondents’ perception of the vowels and their production of the same, and that there is a significant correlation between the children and adults’ age, duration, and amount of exposure to the language and their ability to produce the vowels accurately. It was concluded that the native Swahili EFL learners’ production of English vowels is significantly influenced by their age, duration, and amount of exposure to English. And that their perception of the English vowels influences the production of the same. Further research on the effect of age and exposure to English on other aspects of English phonology such as stress and intonation are recommended.
Multilingualism and language in Education in Tanzania
(CUP, 2015) Qorro, Martha
Tanzania is a multilingual country with a unique situation in Africa whereby in addition to numerous ethnic community languages (ELCs), there is Kiswahili, a lingua franca spoken by an estimated 95% or more of the population. Kiswahili is one of the two official languages in Tanzania, English being the other official language, spoken by less than 5% in the country. This chapter proposes the use of a familiar language as the language of instruction because in any kind of learning, a language that the learner understands is a prerequisite for effective learning. This is because the level of language mastery of a person determines that person’s ability to understand, process and present his or her thoughts. What is needed in Tanzania and Africa in general is high quality education through familiar languages that will allow knowledge and skills to be learnt and then disseminated to the communities for application.
Constraints on the Acquisition of the EFL Progressive Marking: A Case of Kiswahili as L1 Secondary Students in Tanzania
(University of Dar es Salaam, 2016) Njiro, Godwin
This study investigated the constraints on the acquisition of the English progressive marking by Kiswahili EFL learners. Specifically, it examined lexical aspect and progressive meaning as factors constraining the acquisition of the English progressive marking by Tanzanian EFL learners. The participants in the study were 70 Form Two and Form Four students who were native speakers of Kiswahili. The data were collected by using a cloze-test designed to examine the association of the progressive marking with a full range of verb semantic features and progressive meaning. The data were coded and analyzed using inferential and descriptive statistics. The findings indicated limited effect of lexical aspect on the acquisition of the English progressive marking: progressive marking is strongly associated with activity verbs, but the spread of the progressive form was from activity > stative > achievement > accomplishment and there was incorrect overextension of the progressive form to stative verbs which decreased with increase in proficiency. The findings also provided evidence of the effects of progressive meaning: progressive marking appeared to be strongly associated with the meaning of in-progress and incompleteness and gradually extended to the meanings of temporariness, repetitiveness and preliminary stage. It was concluded that lexical aspect and the semantic meaning of the progressive aspect constrain L2 acquisition of the English progressive aspect marginally. Further research on the effect of lexical aspect and progressive meaning on L2 acquisition of the progressive marking involving participants from different proficiency levels is recommended.
Investigating text books vetting and evaluation process in Tanzania
(Moi University, 2016) Geuza, Zamda
The vetting and evaluation process is important to ensure quality provision of textbooks. Although, vetting and evaluation process is important, the link and functional role of the publishers, Tanzania Institute of Education and the Ministry of Education and Vocational Training, who are the key players in the process seems to be unclear. This study aimed at investigating textbooks vetting and evaluation process in Tanzanian in order to propose strategies that would enhance vetting and evaluation process. The objectives of the study were: to investigate the role of publishers and TIE in the textbooks vetting and evaluation process; to examine factors which are used to approve primary and secondary school textbooks; to examine the differences between the multi-textbook vetting and evaluation process and single-textbook vetting and evaluation process; to examine the challenges faced by publishers in complying with Government’s vetting and evaluation guidelines and to propose strategies that would enhance the vetting, evaluation and approval process. The study was guided by the Value Chain Theory which helps to understand relationship among various textbook publishing activities and how they help to improve the value of the textbooks. The study used a mixed method research design. This study was conducted in Dar es Salaam with a total population of 108 and a sample size of 58 respondents including: educational publishers managerial staff; Department of Planning and Policy in the Ministry of Education and Vocational Training, Baraza la Kiswahili Tanzania (publishing section), Tanzania Institute of Education (publishing section, Vetting Evaluation Section), and key staff of Publishers Association of Tanzania. The respondents were selected using purposeful and judgemental sampling techniques. Open and close-ended questionnaire as well as semi- structured interviews were used to collect data which were then, analysed qualitatively and quantitatively. The major findings of the study were that; the textbooks vetting and evaluation process had not been professionally conducted although there were standard criteria used; and there was no well-defined textbook publishing and provision system as well as vetting and evaluation process which incorporate views of all the major stakeholders with a number of challenges facing the various players involved. There had not been a good relationship, clear communication and well established roles among key players involved in the vetting and evaluation process leading to conflict of interest between TIE and the publishers. The multiple- textbook publishing system was perceived to be more appropriate for the Tanzania education system than a single system. Thus, the study concluded there is a missing link between education system, curriculum development body and the publishing industry which result in ineffective vetting, evaluation and approval process that could not produce quality textbooks. Recommendation were; having an independent professional evaluation board with experienced experts in the field, have a well-defined timetable and effective communication; involving all important players in making important decisions, players should fulfil their duties effectively and make use of the new technology, enacting a book policy and adopting a limited multiple-textbook publishing system and the government should coordinate publishing activities but not participating in it.
Radial Categories in Syntax: Non-Resumptive Left Dislocation in Arusa
(Studia Linguistica Universitatis Iagellonicae Cracoviensis, 2017) Karani, Michael
This paper discusses the phenomenon of L(eft) D(islocation) in Arusa – a southern variety of Maasai – and, in particular, the presence of resumption in LD construc¬tions. With respect to resumption, Arusa allows for two types of LD. In most cases, a non-resumptive type of LD is used. This variant is obligatory if a possible resumptive element refers to an argument of the verb of the matrix clause (i.e. subject, direct and indirect objects and applied objects). The resumptive type, which is significantly less frequent, appears only if the dislocate corresponds to an adjunct in the matrix clause. The pervasiveness of the non-resumptive LD stems from the ungrammaticality of overt independent pronominal arguments in most positions in Arusa. As a result, resump¬tion cannot be viewed as a decisive feature for the classification of a construction as LD, and its lack as a sufficient reason to propose a different category. Rather, LD should be viewed as a radial category containing both constructions that match the LD prototype and structures that are more remote from the exemplar.
An investigation of textbook vetting and evaluation process in Tanzania
(Springer, 2017) Geuza, Zamda
Textbook vetting and evaluation process intend to ensure that the materials provided are relevant, of the required quality, suitable and would enhance learning efficiency and effectiveness. The paper investigates the role publishers and Tanzania Institute f Education (TIE) in the textbooks vetting and evaluation process; examines factors used to vet, evaluate and approve primary and secondary school textbooks in Tanzania and proposes strategies that would enhance the textbook vetting, evaluation and process. The study used a mixed method research design. Respondents were selected educational publishers; MoEVT, Baraza la Kiswahili Tanzania, TIE, and Publishers Association of Tanzania. Questionnaires and semi-structured interviews were used to collect data which were analysed qualitatively and quantitatively. Major findings of the study were: textbooks vetting and evaluation process is not professionally conducted although standard criteria have been established. There is not well-established roles among key players involved in the vetting and evaluation process leading to conflict of interest between TIE and the publishers. The study recommends establishing an independent professional evaluation board and a well-defined timetable and effective communication among various players; enacting a book policy and adopting a limited multiple-textbook publishing system.
The Perfective Form in Arusa – a Cognitive-Grammaticalization Model
(Asian and African Studies, 2017) Karani, Michael
The present paper studies the semantics of the so-called perfective (PFV) form in Arusa (Maasai), using the model of the dynamic (one- and two-dimensional) semantic maps. The analysis demonstrates that PFV is a broad, semi-advanced resultative-path gram. It spans large sections of the two sub-paths of the resultative path: the anterior path (present perfect, perfective and non-perfective past, as well pluperfect and future perfect) and the simultaneous path (present stative). However, the PFV form is incompatible with the input sense of the resultative path (a resultative proper present) and the most advanced stages of the two sub-paths (non-stative present and progressive past). If the information related to prototypicality is included, the map adopts the shape of a wave with the prototypicality peaks located in the area of a perfective past and, to a lesser degree, a present perfect. The senses of a non-perfective past and a stative present are less prototypical. Other senses (pluperfect, future perfect and counterfactual irrealis) are non-prototypical, contributing minimally to the gram’s semantics.
The Linguistic Landscape of Muhimbili National Hospital in Tanzania: Its Implication on Access to Information
(Journal of Linguistics and Language in Education, 2017) Mdukula, Paschal
The paper examines the nature of linguistic public signs that constitute what is popularly known as Linguistic Landscape (LL) at Muhimbili National Hospital (MNH) in Tanzania in order to explain their implication for access to information in the hospital. The study employed the socio-linguistic theoretical framework to examine the nature of the LL of MNH and its implication for access to information as presented through public signs at the hospital. Data for this study constituted photos/public signs from the hospital premises and interview narratives from hospital clients and staff. The data were analysed both quantitatively and qualitatively. Findings show that the LL of MNH is more controlled by top-down than bottom-up actors in which there are three visible languages: English, Swahili, and Chinese. The most preferred language patterns (the use of monolingual English) do not guarantee access to information to most of hospital clients in the public space of the hospital. This is due to the fact that some of clients fail to understand what is communicated through the signboards placed in the public space of the hospital. This lowers further their participation in promoting health and taking responsibilities of their health concerns while at the hospital.

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