Browsing by Author "Tingum, Ernest N."

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    The Demand for Cigarettes in Tanzania and Implications for Tobacco Taxation Policy
    (2015) Kidane, Asmerom W.; Mduma, John K.; Naho, Alexis; Tingum, Ernest N.; Hu, Teh W.
    The study attempts to estimate the demand for cigarettes in Tanzania and presents simulation results on the effect of the cigarette excise tax on smoking participation, government revenue, and related topics. After briefly summarizing the magnitude and spread of cigarette consumption in the country, the paper reviews some empirical estimates from African and other countries. The 2008 Tanzanian household budget survey was used to estimate the demand for cigarettes in Tanzania. The descriptive statistics suggest that the smoking prevalence for Tanzania is 15.35 percent with low variability across expenditure (income) groups. Smoking intensity and per capita consumption were estimated at 7.08 cigarettes and 1.33 cigarettes, respectively, a relatively low value. A two-part demand equation model was used to estimate various elasticities. For the overall equation, the price elasticities of smoking participation, smoking intensity, and total elasticity were estimated at -0.879, -0.853, and -1.732, respectively. Compared to similar results in other developing countries, the estimates appear quite high. When estimated by expenditure (income) groups, the magnitude of the elasticity appears higher among high expenditure groups than among low expenditure groups. Two simulation exercises were undertaken. First, the effect of different excise rates on smoking participation rate, cigarette consumption, tax revenue, and related responses was estimated and highlighted. Second, the same exercise was undertaken to determine the effect of a given increase in the cigarette excise tax on various expenditure groups. The overall results suggest that an increase in the excise tax on cigarettes in Tanzania would reduce cigarette consumption and increase government tax revenue.
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    Healthcare Cost of Smoking Induced Cardiovascular Disease in Tanzania
    (2015) Kidane, Asmerom W.; Hepelwa, Aloyce; Tingum, Ernest N.; Hu, Teh W.
    The study presented here estimates the total health care cost attributable to smoking induced cardiovascular disease in Tanzania. The study based on a survey conducted at a referral university hospital in Dar es Salaam in 2014. Assuming a 2% prevalence rate of cardiovascular disease and a population of 47.2 million, it was estimated that there are 943,800 cardiovascular patients in Tanzania. The proportion of ever smokers among the surveyed patients was found to be 25 percent yielding 240,400 patients who suffer from smoking induced cardiovascular diseases. Per capita annual expenditure per patient is estimated to be 566.6 US dollars and total annual expenditure for the country was estimated to be 136.1 million US dollars. On a per capita basis more direct and indirect cost is incurred on males compared to females; more is spent on the elderly (40 or more years) compared to the youth (less than 20 years). When compared with the mean annual household income of the surveyed population, the smoking induced per capita expenditure constitutes 35% of household income.
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    Wages in Benin. WageIndicator Survey 2012.
    (2013) Besamusca, Janna; Tijdens, Kea; Tingum, Ernest N.; Alinsato, Alastaire
    This WageIndicator Data Report presents the results of the face-to-face WageIndicator survey in Benin, conducted between the 15th and 19th of October 2012. The survey aimed to measure in detail the wages earned by Beninese workers, including the self-employed. In total 2,002 persons were interviewed in towns and cities of nine out of twelve departments of Benin. The workers in the survey live in households with on average 3.6 members, including themselves. Over half of both male and female workers live with a partner and children. Just over four in ten workers had diplomas from secondary education, 16% of workers followed no formal education, one in four stopped at elementary education and 16% followed tertiary education. Women are more likely to have no education and less likely to have enjoyed tertiary education. On a scale from 1=dissatisfied to 10=satisfied, respondents rate their satisfaction with life as a whole a 5.6 on average. In the sample, one in four workers are self-employed. Two in ten workers are employees with a permanent contract, three in ten workers have fixed-term contracts, whereas one in four have no contract at all. On average, respondents have worked for 11 years. Over six in ten people in the sample work in an organization with 10 or fewer employees (65%); the self-employed and workers without education do so almost exclusively. Ten per cent of workers are covered by a collective agreement, whereas 49% wish to be. Participation in schemes and bonuses is generally low, while health care schemes (11%) and pension schemes (10%) are most common. The average usual working week of respondents is 57 hours in 5.8 days. Four in ten workers regularly work shifts, two in three workers report working Saturdays, while three in ten work Sundays. Just 21% state that they are entitled to social security, whereas 31% contribute to it. Three in ten employees state that they have no agreed working hours, 36% has agreed working hours in writing 36%, and 34% verbally agreed. Three in four workers are paid cash in hand and seven in ten workers report receiving their wage on time. On a 5-points informality-index, ranging from 1=very informal to 5=very formal, 43% of workers are in the lowest category in the index, whereas 10% are in the highest category. In the sample, 57% report being employed as managers, which includes many small business owners, 14% are services and sales workers and 9% as clerical support workers. Over four in ten respondents work in trade transport and hospitality, 32% in the public sector, 11% work in agriculture, manufacturing and construction and 12% in commercial services. The median net hourly wage of the total sample is 214 Franc (CFA). Two in ten workers earn less than 100 Franc per hour, 28% earn between 100 and 200 Franc, 26% earn between and 200 and 400 Franc and 27% earn more than 400 Franc per hour. Employees with permanent contracts have by far the highest earnings (427 CFA), whereas workers without a contract (132 CFA) have the lowest earnings. At 166 CFA, workers in firms with less than ten employees earn the lowest wages, whereas employees in firms of over a 100 employees earn the highest wages (463 CFA). Those on the lowest end of the informality scale earn only 144 CFA per hour, whereas those in the highest category earn wages far above that (median is 577 CFA). Men have higher wages compared to women, and young workers have substantial lower wages than workers in the oldest age group. Both workers with second cycle secondary education (289 CFA) and those with tertiary education (586 CFA) earn above average wages; workers without education earn the lowest wages (148 CFA). Managers have the highest median wages (260 CFA), service and sales workers the lowest (137 CFA). By industry, the highest wages are earned in agriculture, manufacturing and construction (262 CFA) and the public sector, health care, and education (258 CFA). Workers in commercial services (189 CFA) and in trade, transport, and hospitality (185 CFA) earn considerably less. The analysis shows that 70% of the sample is paid on or above the minimum wage rate of CFA 31,652 per month gross. Just four in ten workers without contracts earn the minimum wage rate, whereas 95% of employees with permanent contracts do. Workers in firms employing between 51 and 100 people are most often paid above the minimum wage (94%), compared to only 56% of workers in firms employing 10 or less people. Only 47% of the most informal workers are paid the minimum wage, compared to 99% of the most formal workers. Women are less likely to paid the minimum wage than men (68% versus 71%). The older and more highly educated workers are, the more likely they are to be paid above the minimum wage rate. Eight in ten managers and crafts workers are paid the minimum wage rate, whereas only 42% of those in elementary occupations do. Workers in commercial services are most at risk of being not paid above the minimum wage (only 53% are), while public sectors are most likely (81%).
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    Wages in Guinea. Wage Indicator survey 2012.
    (2013) Besamusca, Janna; Tijdens, Kea; Tingum, Ernest N.; Diallo, Hassane
    This WageIndicator Data Report presents the results of the face-to-face survey on wages and working conditions in Guinea, conducted between the 13th of September and 2nd of October 2012. In total 1,962 persons were interviewed, the majority in urban areas. More male than female workers were interviewed and more younger than older workers. On a scale from 1=dissatisfied to 10=satisfied, half of the respondents rate their satisfaction with life as a whole a six or higher and 10% score an 8 or higher. The workers in the survey live in households with on average 3.9 members, including themselves. Roughly half live with a partner and children, 33% live without either a partner or children. Nearly three in ten workers had diplomas from secondary education. One in four workers followed no formal education, 10% stopped at primary education, 20% followed post-secondary vocational education and 17% had a university bachelor or master degree. In the sample, 66% were employed as managers, 9% work in services and sales and 9% as clerical support workers. Four in ten respondents work in trade, transport and hospitality, 30% in the public sector, 16% work in agriculture, manufacturing and construction and 14% in commercial services. Almost half the people work in an organization with 10 or fewer employees (47%). Some 27% of workers are covered by collective agreements, whereas 56% wish to be. The average usual working week of respondents is 52 hours in 5.9 days. Some 22% of workers are self-employed, 35% were employed on a permanent contract, 31% on a fixed-term contract and 13% had no contract at all. 53% of the workers were entitled to social security. Three in ten workers have no agreed working hours, 37% received their wages in a bank account, whereas 60% receive them in cash. On a 5 point scale of informality, 27% of workers are in the lowest category, whereas 17% are in the highest category. The median net hourly wage of the total sample is 2887 Guinean Franc (FG). Employees with permanent contracts have by far the highest earnings (4330 FG), whereas self-employed workers (990 FG) have the lowest earnings. At 1947 FG, workers in firms with less than ten employees earn the lowest wages, whereas employees in firms between 51 and 100 employees earn the highest wages (5160 FG). The more informal a job is, the lower are the net hourly wages. Those on the lowest end of the scale earn only 1209 FG per hour, whereas those in the fourth category earn wages far above that (median is 6240 FG). Managers have the highest median wages (3495 FG), followed by skilled agricultural workers (3029 FG). The lowest paid workers are plant and machine operators (1283 FG), followed by technicians (1460 FG). By industry, the lowest wages are found in trade, transport, and hospitality (1780 FG). Six in ten self-employed workers earn less than FG 1500 per hour, as do nearly half of the employees without contracts. Some 79% of the sample is paid on or above the poverty line and 74% on or above the minimum wage of 400,000 francs per month of FG 400,000 per month gross, that trade unions, employers and the government agreed upon on the 14th of December 2012. Self-employed workers are the single most vulnerable group; just less than half earn more than the poverty line and only 44% earn the prospective minimum wage rate. Whereas 65% of fixed term employees earn more than the poverty line, just 48% earn more than the future minimum wage. Only 52% of informal workers are paid above the poverty line compared to 97% of the most formal workers. Especially for the lowest two categories on the informality scale, the share of workers earning above the minimum wage (41% of the lowest, and 69% of the second category) is much smaller than those with incomes above the poverty line. Eight in ten managers are paid above the poverty line and minimum wage rate, implying the minimum wage will not lead to any improvement in salaries for 80% of the managers because they already earn more than that. The largest effects can be found among technicians and associate professionals (72% above the poverty line, 41% above the minimum wage), workers in elementary occupations (78% above the poverty line, 49% above the minimum wage) and services and sales workers (80% above the poverty line, 61% above the minimum wage rate). Workers in trade, transport and hospitality are most at risk of being not paid above the poverty line (only 65% do) and even less likely to earn the future minimum wage rate (56%). A worker’s position on informality index, working for a small firm, permanent contract status, gender and age affect the likelihood of being paid on or above the poverty line. Most of these effects also count, but have smaller effects, when explaining whether someone is paid on or above the future minimum wage, for which the informality index and occupational status become more important.
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    Wages in Madagascar. WageIndicator Survey 2012.
    (2013) Besamusca, Janna; Tijdens, Kea; Tingum, Ernest N.; Ravelosoa, Rachel
    This WageIndicator Data Report presents the results of the face-to-face WageIndicator survey in Madagascar, conducted between the 23rd of November and the 14th of December 2012. The survey aimed to measure in detail the wages earned by workers in all provinces of Madagascar, including the self-employed. In total 2,018 persons were interviewed, 93% of whom lived in towns and cities. The workers in the survey live in households with on average 4 members, including themselves. Six in ten workers live with a partner and children. Just over half of the workers had diplomas from secondary education, 4% enjoyed no formal education, 16% stopped at elementary education and 27% followed tertiary education. On average, respondents had worked for 14 years. On a scale from 1=dissatisfied to 10=satisfied, interviewees rate their satisfaction with life as a whole an average 5.3. In the sample, 34% of the workers are self-employed, 30% are employees with a permanent contract, 10% have fixed-term contracts and 23% have no contract at all. Up to 66% of workers in the sample report being employed as managers. This group includes all business owners, including micro-enterprises. Some 9% are clerical support workers, 8% are skilled agricultural workers and 7% services and sales workers. Over four in ten respondents work in trade transport and hospitality and 38% in agriculture, manufacturing and construction; 5% work in commercial services and 17% in the public sector. Six in ten people work in an organization with 10 or fewer employees, 31% work in an organization with 11-50 employees, 5% work in businesses of 51 to 100 employees and 3% work for businesses employing over a 100 people. Some 73% of workers report receiving their wage on time and 70% of workers receive their wage cash in hand. The average usual working week of respondents is 51 hours spread out over 5.7 days. Up to 45% of workers report working shifts or irregular hours, 16% work in the evenings, two in three workers work Saturdays, while one in four works Sundays. While 11% of workers are covered by collective agreements, 65% wish to be. Some 35% state that they are entitled to social security. Nearly half of the employees have no agreed working hours, 31% has agreed working hours in writing, 22% only verbally. On a 5-points informality-index, ranging from 1=very informal to 5=very formal, 49% of workers are in the lowest category, whereas 20% are in the highest category. The median net hourly wage of the total sample is 662 Ariary (MGA). Employees with permanent contracts earn 1207 MGA on average, employees on fixed term contracts 961 Ariary, workers without contracts 427 Ariary and self-employed only 318 MGA. At 462 MGA, workers in firms with less than ten employees earn the lowest wages, whereas employees in firms of between 51 and 100 employees earn the highest wages (1195 MGA). Those on the lowest end of the informality scale earn only 328 MGA per hour, whereas those in the highest category earn 1443 MGA. Workers with tertiary education (1732 MGA) earn above average wages; workers without education earn the lowest wages (122 MGA). By occupational category, the graph shows that clerical support workers have the highest median wages (912 MGA respectively), followed by managers (750 MGA). The lowest paid workers are skilled agricultural workers (253 MGA) and service and sales workers (340 MGA). The highest wages are earned in the public sector, health care, and education (1386 MGA) the lowest in agriculture, manufacturing and construction (550 MGA). Almost half of the self-employed workers (46%) earn less than 250 MGA per hour, as do 35% of the employees without contracts; only 8% of fixed term employees and 4% of workers with permanent contracts do. Over half of the workers with tertiary education earn more than 1500 MGA per hour, whereas 9% workers with primary education and 7% of those without education do. Only 59% of the sample is paid on or above the minimum wage. Workers without contracts and the self-employed are the most vulnerable groups: just four in ten earn the minimum wage rate. In contrast, 88% of employees with permanent contracts and three in four workers on fixed term contracts earn at least the minimum wage. Workers in firms employing between 51 and 100 people are most often paid above the minimum wage (84%), while only 46% of workers in firms employing 10 or less people are. Only 38% of the most informal workers are paid the minimum wage, compared to 93% of the most formal workers. Women are slightly more likely to paid the minimum wage than men (60% versus 58%). The older workers are, the more likely they are to be paid above the minimum wage rate. Workers with tertiary education are paid on or above the minimum wage rate in 89% of the cases, compared to just 19% of workers without formal education. Seven in ten clerical support workers are paid the minimum wage rate, whereas only 36% of services and sales workers are. Workers in trade, transport and hospitality are most at risk of being not paid above the minimum wage (only 48% are), while public sectors are most likely (87%).
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    Wages in Niger. Wage Indicator Survey 2012.
    (2012) Tijdens, Kea; Besamusca, Janna; Tingum, Ernest N.; Nafiou, M. M.
    This WageIndicator Data Report presents the results of the face-to-face WageIndicator survey in Niger, conducted between the 26th of September and 26th of October 2012. This report is based on 1,712 interviews from all regions; 69% were men and 45% were under 30 years old. The workers in the survey live in households with on average 3.3 members, and almost five in ten men and more than five in ten women live with both a partner and children. On a scale from 1 (low) to 10 (high), more than half of the respondents (54%) rate their lives a five or lower and a 21% score an 8 or higher. On average, the interviewees score a 5.7. Almost two in ten had attained primary education first cycle and another two in ten had primary education second cycle (18% and 17%). Slightly more than two in ten workers had diplomas from secondary education (22%). On average, respondents worked for 10.8 years. More than six of ten people in the sample work in an organization with 10 or fewer employees (64%). The average working week of respondents is almost 50 hours and they work 5.8 days per week. More than five in ten workers regularly work shifts, almost seven in ten work evenings, almost six in ten report working regularly Saturdays, while five in ten work regularly Sundays. The biggest group of interviewees works in the wholesale and retail trade (19%), almost two in ten work in education (17%), followed by transportation and storage (14%). More than a tenth (11%) works in human health and social work activities and slightly less in financial and insurance activities (10%). More than half of the workers in the sample are employed as managers, which includes all business owners, including those of micro-enterprises. Sizeable groups of respondents work in services and sales (10%) and as clerical support workers (11%). Three in ten workers is self-employed (29%), almost three in ten workers are employees with a permanent contract (28%), almost three in ten have a fixed term contract (29%) and the remaining one in ten have no contract at all (14%). Almost three in ten workers (29%) state that they are entitled to social security. Two in three workers state that they have no agreed working hours (65%). More than two in ten get their wages transferred to a bank account, almost seven in ten get them cash in hand. Up to 23% of workers are in what can be qualified as very informal jobs, without social security, agreed hours or contracts, whereas 10% are in the very formal jobs. The median net hourly wage of the total sample is 288.68 Niger Franc (CFA). Workers in firms with less than ten employees earn a lot less than employees of larger firms. The analysis also shows that the more informal a job is, the lower the net hourly wages. Those on the lowest end of the informality scale earn only 105 CFA per hour, whereas those in the highest end earn wages far above that (699 CFA). Employees with permanent contracts have the highest and self-employed workers the lowest earnings (462 versus 117 CFA). Median wages increase with educational level. Workers without formal education earn 69 CFA, those with university education 780 CFA. Managers have the highest median wages (375 CFA), followed by clerical support workers (305 CFA). The lowest paid workers are the skilled agricultural, forestry and fishery workers (82 CFA), followed by the plant and machine operators, and assemblers (96 CFA). The highest wages are earned in the public sector, health care, and education (462 CFA), and the lowest wages in trade, transport, and hospitality (192 CFA). The result of the analysis shows that 66% of the sample is paid on or above the minimum wage rate of 30047 CFA per month, whereas 34% is paid below the minimum wage rate. Only 34% of informal workers are paid above the minimum wage rate compared to 92% of the most formal workers. Women are more often paid above the minimum wage rate than men (60% versus 81%). Workers under 30 years are most vulnerable: 55% is paid on or above the minimum wage rate, compared to 80% of workers above 50 years old. Workers in large firms are most often paid above the minimum wage rate (92%), compared to 48% of workers in firms employing 10 people or less. Self-employed workers are the single most vulnerable group. Just under one third (32%) earn more than the minimum wage rate. Less than four in ten workers with no education and slightly more with primary first cycle education are paid above the minimum wage rate (38% and 46%), compared to at least 95% of workers who finished general secondary, tertiary or university education. Almost seven in ten managers earn above the minimum wage rate (67%). In contrast, four in ten plant and machine operators, and assemblers earn more than the minimum wage rate (41%) and just a few more skilled agricultural, forestry and fishery workers do so (44%). Workers in trade, transport and hospitality are most at risk of being not paid a minimum wage (only 51% paid above the minimum wage rate). Public sector workers are best of; 85% of them earn a wage above the minimum wage rate.
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    Wages in Rwanda. WageIndicator Survey 2012.
    (2013) Besamusca, Janna; Tijdens, Kea; Tingum, Ernest N.; Mbassana, Marvin E.
    This WageIndicator Data Report presents the results of the face-to-face WageIndicator survey in Rwanda, conducted between the 27th of October and the 3rd of December 2012. The survey aimed to measure in detail the wages earned by Rwandan workers. In total 2,074 persons were interviewed in towns in all provinces of Rwanda. The workers lived in households with on average 4 members, including themselves. Almost half of the workers live with a partner and children. Some 4% of workers followed no formal education, two in ten stopped at elementary education, 44% completed secondary education. 6% followed post-secondary education and 26% followed tertiary education. On a scale from 1=dissatisfied to 10=satisfied, workers rate their satisfaction with life as a whole a 5.9 on average. In the sample, 29% of the workers were self-employed, 24% were employees on permanent contracts, 24% had fixed-term contracts, whereas 23% had no contract at all. On average, the workers had worked for 9.5 years. Over half of the people worked in an organization with 10 or fewer employees, one in three worked in an organization with 11-50 employees, 7% work in businesses of 51 to 100 employees and 11% work for businesses employing over a 100 people. Up to 55% of workers in the sample report being employed as managers (this group includes all business owners, including micro-enterprises), 12% are services and sales workers, 11% work in elementary occupations and 10% as clerical support workers. Over four in ten respondents work in trade transport and hospitality, 27% in agriculture, manufacturing and construction, 18% in the public sector and 15% work in commercial services. On average, the respondents work 60 hours per week and 5.9 days. Some 42% of workers report working shifts, 39% work evenings, 56% work Saturdays, while 36% works Sundays. Some 39% state that they are entitled to social security, whereas 46% contribute to social security. Less than two in ten workers state that they have no agreed working hours, 60% has agreed hours in writing and 22% verbally agreed hours. Up to 82% of workers report receiving their wage on time; 53% of workers received wages in a bank account, 46% cash in hand and 1% in kind. On a 5-point informality-index, ranging from 1=very informal to 5=very formal, 39% of workers are in the lowest category in the index, whereas 18% are in the highest category. The median net hourly wage of the total sample is 450 Rwandan francs (RWF); 26% of workers earn less than 150 francs per hour, another 24% earn between 150 and 450 francs, 29% earn between 450 and 1350 francs and the remaining 21% earn more than 1350 francs per hour. Employees with permanent contracts have by far the highest earnings (1008 RWF), whereas workers without contracts (128 RWF) have the lowest earnings. At 565 francs, employees on fixed term contracts earn above average wages, whereas the self-employed fall below it (418 RWF). Managers have the highest median wages (722 RWF). The lowest paid workers are skill service and sales workers (128 RWF) and workers in elementary occupations (139 RWF). The highest wages are earned in agriculture, manufacturing and construction (667 RWF), the lowest in commercial services (202 RWF). At 270 RWF, workers in firms with less than ten employees earn the lowest wages, whereas employees in firms of over a 100 employees earn the highest wages (1210 RWF). Those on the lowest end of the informality index earn only 192 RWF per hour, whereas those in the highest category earn wages 1155 francs. Men have slightly higher wages compared to women, and young workers have substantial lower wages than workers in the oldest age group. Workers with tertiary education earned 1369 RWF, compared to 98 RWF for workers without education. Only 49% of the sample is paid on or above the poverty line of 118.000 RWF per month. Workers without contracts were most vulnerable; just one in ten earn on or above the poverty line. In contrast, 79% of employees with permanent contracts, 57% of workers on fixed term contracts and 44% of self-employed do. Workers in firms employing between 51 and 100 people are most often paid above the poverty line (86%), compared to only 35% of workers in firms employing 10 people or less. Only 26% of the most informal workers are paid on or above the poverty line, compared to 84% of the most formal workers. Men are slightly more likely to paid above the poverty line than women (52% versus 47%). The older workers are, the more likely they are to be paid above the poverty line. Workers with tertiary education are paid on or above the poverty line in 92% of the cases, compared to just 15% of workers without formal education. Up to 63% of managers are paid above the poverty line, whereas only 14% of workers in elementary occupations and 19% of services and sales workers are. Workers in commercial services are most at risk of being paid poverty wages, while workers in agriculture, manufacturing and construction are most likely to be paid on or above the poverty line.
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    Wages in Senegal. WageIndicator Survey 2012.
    (2012) Tijdens, Kea; Besamusca, Janna; Kane, A.; Tingum, Ernest N.
    This WageIndicator Data Report presents the results of the face-to-face WageIndicator survey in Senegal, conducted between the 13h of September and 2nd of October 2012. In total 1,948 persons from almost all administrative regions were interviewed; 56% were men and 47% were under 30 years old. The workers in the survey live in households with on average five members, four of ten live with children and partners. On a scale from 1 (low) to 10 (high), less than half of the respondents (43%) rate their satisfaction with life a six or lower and a high 32% score an 8 or higher. On average, the interviewees score a 7. Nearly half of the workers had certificates from secondary education (44%). Sixteen per cent of workers followed no formal education, 21% stopped at primary education, 14% had a bachelor or master university degree. On average, respondents worked for 10 years. More than half of the people in the sample work in an organization with 10 or fewer employees (54%). The average working week of respondents is more than 55 hours and they work six days per week. Six in ten workers regularly work shifts, three in ten work evenings, six in ten workers report working Saturdays, while four in ten work Sundays. The biggest group of interviewees worked in wholesale and retail trade (17%). Just over a tenth (10%) worked in human health and social work activities and just a little fewer in financial and insurance activities (9.6%). Nearly half of the workers in the sample are employed as managers, which includes all business owners. Sizeable groups of respondents work in services and sales (15%) and as plant and machine operators (5%). One in ten workers is self-employed (11%), two in ten workers are employees with a permanent contract (20%), almost three in ten have a fixed term contract (26%) and four in ten have no contract at all (41%). Three in ten workers (31%) state that they are entitled to social security. Almost half of all workers state that they have no agreed working hours (49%). One third get their wages transferred to a bank account, two thirds get them cash in hand. Up to 46% of workers are in what can be qualified as very informal jobs, without social security, agreed hours or contracts, whereas 13% are in the very formal jobs. The median net hourly wage of the total sample is 358.49 Senegal Franc (XOF). Workers in firms with less than ten employees earn a lot less than employees of bigger firms. The analysis also shows that the more informal a jobs is, the lower the net hourly wages. Those on the lowest end of the informality scale earn only 186 XOF per hour, whereas those in the highest end earn wages far above that (median is 962 XOF). Employees with permanent contracts have by far the highest earnings (747 XOF), whereas workers without a labour contract (171 XOF) have the lowest earnings. Median wages increase with every level of education. Payoffs are small for the first levels of education and increase as the level gets higher. Workers without formal education earn on average 153 XOF, whereas those with university education earn 866 XOF. Managers have the highest median wages (513 XOF), followed by clerical support workers (481 XOF) and technicians and associate professionals (268 XOF). The lowest paid workers are the plant and machine operators, and assemblers (141 XOF), followed by the elementary occupations (153 XOF) and the craft and related trades workers (164 XOF). Women have higher median earnings than men, but men have higher mean earnings (711 versus 643 XOF), pointing to the fact that men are more found in the upper tail of the wage distribution. The result of the analysis shows that 91% of the sample is paid on or above the poverty line of 41 XOF per hour (or 1.25 US Dollars per day), whereas 9% is paid below the poverty line. Only 85% of informal workers are paid above the poverty line compared to 99% of the most formal workers. Men are less often paid above the poverty line than women (89% versus 94%). Workers under 30 years are most vulnerable: 88% is paid on or above the poverty line, compared to 94% of workers above 50 years old. Workers in large firms are least often paid above the poverty line (82%), compared to 93% of workers in firms employing between 11 and 50 people. Self-employed workers are the single most vulnerable group, only just over four in five (83%) are paid more than the poverty line. Less than four in five workers with no education and slightly more than four in five workers with elementary education are paid above the poverty line, compared to 97% and 99% of workers who finished general secondary or university education respectively. More than nine in ten managers are paid above the poverty line and almost as many clerical support workers (94%). In contrast, four in five (81%) of the plant and machine operators, and assemblers earn more than the poverty line and just a few more (83%) skilled agricultural, forestry and fishery workers do. Workers in trade, transport and hospitality are most at risk of poverty (90% paid below the poverty line). Public sector workers are best of, 98% of them earning a wage above the poverty line.
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    Wages in Togo. WageIndicator Survey 2012.
    (2012) Tijdens, Kea; Besamusca, Janna; Tingum, Ernest N.; Yovo, Koffi
    This WageIndicator Data Report presents the results of the face-to-face WageIndicator survey in Togo, conducted between the 15th of September and 5th of October 2012. In total 2,007 persons from all administrative regions were interviewed; 49% were men and 43% were under 30 years old. The workers in the survey live in households with on average 3.5 members, and more than five in ten men and three in ten women live with both a partner and children. On a scale from 1 (low) to 10 (high), exactly half of the respondents (50%) rate their satisfaction with life a five or lower and a 20% score an 8 or higher. On average, the interviewees score a 5.5. Slightly more than half of the workers had diplomas from secondary education (51%). Six per cent of workers followed no formal education, 14% stopped at primary education, 19% had a bachelor or master university degree. On average, respondents worked for 8.4 years. More than half of the people in the sample work in an organization with 10 or fewer employees (53%). The average working week of respondents is just over 50 hours and they work 5.7 days per week. Three in ten workers regularly work shifts, six in ten work evenings, six in ten workers report working Saturdays, while two in ten work Sundays. The biggest group of interviewees worked in wholesale and retail trade (19%). More than a tenth (14%) worked in education and half this percentage in human health and social work activities and in financial and insurance activities (both 7%). Half of the workers in the sample are employed as managers, which includes all business owners, including those of micro-enterprises. Sizeable groups of respondents work in services and sales (25%) and as clerical support workers (12%). One in twenty workers is self-employed (5%), almost five in ten workers are employees with a permanent contract (46%), almost two in ten have a fixed term contract (22%) and almost three in ten have no contract at all (27%). Almost four in ten workers (38%) state that they are entitled to social security. One in five workers state that they have no agreed working hours (18%). Almost half get their wages transferred to a bank account, more than half get them cash in hand. Up to 28% of workers are in what can be qualified as very informal jobs, without social security, agreed hours or contracts, whereas 22% are in the very formal jobs. The median net hourly wage of the total sample is 230.95 Togo Franc (CFA). Workers in firms with less than ten employees earn a lot less than employees of bigger firms. The analysis also shows that the more informal a jobs is, the lower the net hourly wages. Those on the lowest end of the informality scale earn only 115 CFA per hour, whereas those in the highest end earn wages far above that (median is 578 CFA). Employees with permanent contracts have by far the highest earnings (366 CFA), whereas workers without a labour contract (117 CFA) have the lowest earnings. Median wages increase with every level of education. Payoffs are small for the first levels of education and increase as the level gets higher. Workers without formal education earn on average 153 CFA, whereas those with university education earn 932 CFA. Managers have the highest median wages (442 CFA), followed by clerical support workers (230 CFA). The lowest paid workers are the service and sales workers (110 CFA), followed by the elementary occupations (169 CFA). The highest wages are earned in the public sector, health care, and education (473 CFA), and the lowest wages in trade, transport, and hospitality (144 CFA). The result of the analysis shows that 65% of the sample is paid on or above the minimum wage rate of 35000 CFA per month, whereas 353% is paid below the minimum wage rate. Only 32% of informal workers are paid above the minimum wage rate compared to 96% of the most formal workers. Men are more often paid above the minimum wage rate than women (68% versus 63%). Workers under 30 years are most vulnerable: 48% is paid on or above the minimum wage rate, compared to 88% of workers above 50 years old. Workers in large firms are most often paid above the minimum wage rate (87%), compared to 51% of workers in firms employing 10 people or less. Workers without a contract are the single most vulnerable group. Just over one third (34%) earn more than the minimum wage rate. Less than four in ten workers with no education and slightly more with elementary education are paid above the minimum wage rate (36% and 37%), compared to 93% and 98% of workers who finished general secondary or university education respectively. More than eight in ten managers are paid above the minimum wage rate (83%). More than eight in ten managers are paid above the minimum wage rate (83%). In contrast, less than four in ten sales and services workers and workers in elementary occupations earn more than the minimum wage rate (37%) and just a few more technicians and associate professionals do (40%). Workers in trade, transport and hospitality are most at risk of being not paid a minimum wage (only 51% paid above the minimum wage rate). Public sector workers are best of; 88% of them earn a wage above the minimum wage rate.