Browsing by Author "Mwakaje, Agnes G."
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Item Analysis of Round Potato Marketing in Tanzania(Centre for Promoting Ideas, USA, 2012-12) Nyunza, Godfrey; Mwakaje, Agnes G.Round potato is one of the most traded food commodities around the world yet; producers in developing countries have remained poor. The objective of this study was to find out the relative benefits obtained by players in the potato marketing chain in Tanzania with the focus of Rungwe District and investigate factors that affect the crop profitability. A sample of 120 farmers was selected randomly for interviews. There was also a discussion with focus groups and key informants. Findings showed that farmers earned only 8% of the total gross margin (GM) compared to 30.9% for the wholesalers. Through regression analysis it was revealed that selling volumes (p<0.0.05) and selling price (p< 0.01) had significant impact on the crop profitability. Although education and land size were not significant, they had positive relationship with GM. Farmers' GM could be enhanced through improved education, productivity, bargaining power and access to market information.Item Assessing the Contribution of Environmental Impact Assessments in Informing Decision Makers Concerning the Booming of FDI in Tanzania(2013-11-04) Mwakaje, Agnes G.Tanzania has become one of the best choices for foreign direct investment (FDI) in East Africa and sub-Saharan Africa in general. The country has been pulling in an average of US$627 million a year and it is one of the continent's top foreign direct investment (FDI) performers. In 2011, the FDI value in the country reached $1,095,401,000.00 and the trend has been increasing. The booming of FDI is believed to have created jobs, increased incomes and contributed significantly to the national economy. Despite that, a large number of ordinary citizens have indicated dissatisfaction with this boom in FDI, which has caused a lot of conflict between investors and the surrounding communities where projects are taking place. In addition, environmental pollution has been observed in connection with a number of new investments. This paper assesses the contribution of environmental impact assessment (EIA) in informing the policy and decision-making process with regard to the boom in FDI in the country. The main focus of the study was to investigate the quality of the EIA undertaken and the extent to which they have influenced decision making with regard to the investments in Tanzania. This was done by reviewing EIA reports and having consultations with developers and regulatory authorities. The main findings are that, despite the existence of EIA for almost all development projects in the country, few of the mitigation measures proposed in the EIA reports are implemented by the developers. The study also revealed a number of EIA reports which were weak in terms of informing decision and policy makers to ensure that FDI would result in a win-win outcome. In addition, the enforcement and monitoring of environmental management plans by the authorities responsible was weak, partly due to inadequate resources.Item Assessing the Cost of Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation by Smallholder Farmers in Tanzania: The Case of Kasulu District(2013) Mwakaje, Agnes G.; Yanda, Pius Z.; Mung’ong’o, C. G.; Kangalawe, Richard Y. M.The impact of climate change on smallholder agriculture has led to different strategies of adaptation and mitigation intending to reduce the risks and GHG emissions. But what is the adaptation and mitigation practices taking place and what are the cost implications for smallholder farmers in poor countries? This study is an attempt to fill this gap. A total of 142 farmers were selected randomly in the two villages of Kasulu District. There was also a consultation with focus groups and key informants. Structured and semi-structured questionnaires were used to collect data. The findings revealed different strategies for adapting to climate change impacts by smallholder farmers such as planting drought and disease-resistant crops, the application of fertilizers/pesticides, mulching and irrigation. As regards mitigation, the farmers were sensitized to avoid deforestation and farming on river banks and catchment areas and to plant trees. Nevertheless, the cost of undertaking these activities was found to be high and poor farmers were incurring more costs than benefits. For successful and cost-effective adaptation and mitigation efforts by poor smallholder farmers there should be capacity building and supportive policies. These may include access to credit, timely and accurate climate information, improved infrastructure, environmental education and access to extension services.Item Assessing the Cost of Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation by Smallholder Farmers in Tanzania: the Case of Kasulu District.(2013) Mwakaje, Agnes G.; Yanda, Pius Z.; Mung'ong'o, Claude G.; Kangalawe, Richard Y. M.The impact of climate change on smallholder agriculture has led to different strategies of adaptation and mitigation intending to reduce the risks and GHG emissions. But what is the adaptation and mitigation practices taking place and what are the cost implications for smallholder farmers in poor countries? This study is an attempt to fill this gap. A total of 142 farmers were selected randomly in the two villages of Kasulu District. There was also a consultation with focus groups and key informants. Structured and semi-structured questionnaires were used to collect data. The findings revealed different strategies for adapting to climate change impacts by smallholder farmers such as planting drought and disease-resistant crops, the application of fertilizers/pesticides, mulching and irrigation. As regards mitigation, the farmers were sensitized to avoid deforestation and farming on river banks and catchment areas and to plant trees. Nevertheless, the cost of undertaking these activities was found to be high and poor farmers were incurring more costs than benefits. For successful and cost-effective adaptation and mitigation efforts by poor smallholder farmers there should be capacity building and supportive policies. These may include access to credit, timely and accurate climate information, improved infrastructure, environmental education and access to extension services.Item Assessing the Implication of Liquid Bioenergy Production from Food Crops on Food Security in Tanzania(e International Institute for Science, Technology and Education (IISTE), 2013) Mwakaje, Agnes G.Tanzania is in the process of promoting the production of liquid bioenergy from non-staple food crops. According to the government, this would give the country a unique opportunity to address both food and energy security. However, there is a concern that using food crops to produce bioenergy could jeopardize food security in the country. This study puts forward these opposing arguments based on the literature review and field research. A total of 100 respondents were selected randomly for interviews in Dodoma Region, Tanzania. The key question to address was whether producing liquid bioenergy from food crops will enhance or jeopardise food security in the country. Findings from the literature review are inconclusive while the field results show that 80% of the respondents indicated dissatisfaction with the policy proposal with reasons that it could lead to allocating all productive land to bioenergy production, the lack of money to purchase food, poor market infrastructure and the temptation to sell all food for bioenergy. To achieve a win-win situation, the government should undertake zoning for bioenergy and food production areas and enhance agricultural productivity. The policy also should emphasize local processing of liquid bioenergy for value addition, employment and rural development.Item Biofuel Development Initiatives in Tanzania: Development Activities, Scales of Production and Conditions for Implementation and Utilization(Elsevier, 2009-11-06) Martin, Michael; Mwakaje, Agnes G.; Eklund, MatsIn recent years biofuel activities have increased dramatically in Africa. Simultaneously biofuels have become popular for fuel alternatives and criticism in the media. Nonetheless biofuel initiatives are taking place on different scales. A depiction of several of these activities has been produced through descriptions and categorization based on scale, distribution and implementation. These initiatives exist due to a complex interaction of social and technical factors which have influenced their success for being introduced, and continues to influence the scale on which they exist and what will happen to them in the future. Conditions for implementation are furthermore explored regarding legislation, use of biofuels, environmental sustainability and the production of a new energy system in Tanzania.Item Can REDD+ Programmes Compensate Adequately the Forest-dependant Livelihoods in Tanzania? Insights from choice model Analysis in Kilosa District(2013) Mwakaje, Agnes G.Tanzania is one of the nine pilot countries for the United Nation‟s Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation (REDD+). It has been receiving significant funding from development partners including the World Bank. Under the REDD+, countries on a voluntary basis, aim to reduce the rate of deforestation and receive compensation in proportion to the carbon emissions saved following the intervention. It creates incentives for developing countries to invest in low-carbon paths to sustainable development. The question however is whether REDD+ will compensate adequately the forest-dependent livelihoods. This information is important for sustainable development as poor communities depend on forest goods and services for their livelihoods. A total of 110 households were selected randomly for interviews to determine the preferred incentive package and analyse the REDD+ governance structures. Through Choice Model analysis, the findings showed a high preference by the respondents on sustainable utilisation of forest resources; improved farm productivity and markets access for agricultural commodities. While REDD+ has the potential to address deforestation, it is questionable whether the livelihood aspect as preferred by communities will be achieved due to mainly inefficient governance structures in place. This will undermine the spirit of sustainable development that emphasize on socio-economic and environmental sustainability.Item Can Tanzania Realise Rural Development through Biofuel Plantations? Insights from Rufiji District.(Elsevier, 2012-09) Mwakaje, Agnes G.Biofuel is a fast growing sector in Tanzania. Foreign and domestic companies are acquiring big portions of land, some up to 440,000 hectares. It is believed that the country has a reserve of 88 million hectares for agriculture. The government is committed to promoting the sector. But what are the implications of biofuel plantations for rural development in Tanzania? This is an area of inquiry which has not received adequate attention. The main objective of the study was to investigate whether biofuel plantations will have any significant impact on rural development in Tanzania, using the case of Rufiji District. The choice of the district was fourfold. One, it has a considerable number of potential biofuel investors. Two, a high proportion of the investors intend to use the vertical integration model of production, processing and marketing. Three, the district is dominated by smallholder farmers, who are poor with chronic food insecurity. Four, Rufiji district is rich in biodiversity and natural resources. The findings from this study will reflect the likely impact of biofuel plantations on rural development as the selected district represents the characteristics of many rural areas of Tanzania. A total of 161 respondents were selected randomly for interview. There were also consultations with village governments, non-government organisations, policy makers and researchers. The findings show both high expectations and concerns. The respondents anticipate benefiting from employment, income-generating opportunities, access to markets for crops, and improved social services. More men than female respondents are hoping to become out-growers. However, male respondents in particular were concerned about land grabbing while for women it was about food security, water use conflicts and whether they will be able to access clean energy. The lack of a biofuel policy and legal framework as well as poor rural infrastructure may undermine the realisation of biofuel benefits.Item Coffee Market Liberalization and Private Sector Performance in Tanzania(2011) Mwakaje, Agnes G.In the traditional neo-classical view, a high market share usually implies market power and exploitation of consumers or producers. However, following high transaction cost of marketing in developing countries, concentrated markets can sometimes be seen as efficient outcomes of competitive behaviour. This paper analyzes the performance of coffee traders in Rungwe District Tanzania following market liberalization in 1994. The focus of the study was on market share, producer price and gross margins across the 11 coffee-buying companies which participated in the 2008/9 marketing season. Using Concentration ratio and Herfindal Index techniques, the results show a high market concentration suggesting that only few companies were controlling a large share of the coffee trade in the district. Nevertheless, there was no strong evidence to suggest that traders were exploiting farmers as companies' gross margins were modest and producer price increased as compared to the period before the market liberalization. High marketing costs resulting from expensive and time-consuming licensing procedures, poor transport infrastructure and low coffee production levels seem to erode most of the coffee profits in the district.Item Dairy farming and Biogas Use in Rungwe District, Southwest Tanzania: a Study of Opportunities and Constraints(Elsevier, 2008) Mwakaje, Agnes G.Dairy farming plays a key role in the lives of poor, rural people in developing countries, providing a major proportion of their cash income, capital assets, draught power, fuel and fertilizer. Small-scale dairying produces valuable food products and provides a regular income and work. Dairying also provides much of the cash needed to perform other socioeconomic activities. Milk production generates reliable incomes to meet household livelihoods (Somda et al., 2005). Possession of dairy animals means also financial security, status, self-confidence and an opportunity to have some control over their live (Ramkumar, 2004). It is also more labour intensive and supports substantial employment in production, processing and marketing. This is partly because dairy production often require the introduction of specialised dairy breeds and increased levels of inputs (nutrition and health care) and good linkages to markets, both for milk sales and input acquisition. In Kenya dairy farming has become a very significant source of income and food for an estimated 625,000 smallholder producer households and for those involved in the marketing of milk, in total some 25% of all households in Kenya benefit from dairy farming (Muriuki et al., 2001). In Tanzania about 700 000 dairy cattle are available under smallholder farmers, with an average of 4 cows per household, there might be 175 households keeping indoor fed dairy cattle in Tanzania. Dairy farming in Tanzania is estimated to grow at a rate of 6% per year and there are about 190,000 registered farmers currently (Swai and Kurimuribo, 2011). Most of these cattle are kept in the highland and relatively cold regions of Arusha, Mbeya, Kagera, Iringa and Morogoro. Smallholder dairy farming in Tanzania has had a significant impact on poverty alleviation in terms of income, education, food security and stabilizing farm incomes (Kisusu et al., 2000).Item Dairy Farming and the Stagnated Biogas Use in Rungwe District, Tanzania: An Investigation of the Constraining Factors(INTECH, 2012-03-14) Mwakaje, Agnes G.Dairy farming plays a key role in the lives of poor, rural people in developing countries, providing a major proportion of their cash income, capital assets, draught power, fuel and fertilizer. Small-scale dairying produces valuable food products and provides a regular income and work. Dairying also provides much of the cash needed to perform other socioeconomic activities. Milk production generates reliable incomes to meet household livelihoods (Somda et al., 2005). Possession of dairy animals means also financial security, status, self-confidence and an opportunity to have some control over their live (Ramkumar, 2004). It is also more labour intensive and supports substantial employment in production, processing and marketing. This is partly because dairy production often require the introduction of specialised dairy breeds and increased levels of inputs (nutrition and health care) and good linkages to markets, both for milk sales and input acquisition. In Kenya dairy farming has become a very significant source of income and food for an estimated 625,000 smallholder producer households and for those involved in the marketing of milk, in total some 25% of all households in Kenya benefit from dairy farming (Muriuki et al., 2001). In Tanzania about 700 000 dairy cattle are available under smallholder farmers, with an average of 4 cows per household, there might be 175 households keeping indoor fed dairy cattle in Tanzania. Dairy farming in Tanzania is estimated to grow at a rate of 6% per year and there are about 190,000 registered farmers currently (Swai and Kurimuribo, 2011). Most of these cattle are kept in the highland and relatively cold regions of Arusha, Mbeya, Kagera, Iringa and Morogoro. Smallholder dairy farming in Tanzania has had a significant impact on poverty alleviation in terms of income, education, food security and stabilizing farm incomes (Kisusu et al., 2000).Item Environmental Communication: A Review of Information Sources and Communication Channels for Enhanced Community-Based Natural Resource Management in the Greater Mara Region of Kenya(SAGE Publication, 2013) Ongare D, D.; Mwakaje, Agnes G.; Muchane, Muchai; Warui, Charles; Mugoya, Charles; Masiga, Clet; Nikundiwe, Alfeyo; Muiti, Anastacia; Wakibara, JamesThe Mara-Serengeti is an ecosystem of immense importance to both Kenya and Tanzania, contributing significantly to the economies of both countries and forming a rich biodiversity reservoir. This ecosystem is among the most threatened ecosystems on the African continent. Increasing human population density and changing lifestyles have escalated demand for ecosystem services including timber and non-timber forest products (NTFPs). These activities have resulted in reduced land productivity and threatened livelihoods. This environmental communication study is aimed at providing a link between effective environmental communication and participatory sustainable natural resource management. It sets out to identify and prioritize natural resource challenges within the Mara region. It subsequently contextualizes the available and effective communication sources and channels to promote participatory approaches to natural resource management in light of several pressures challenging the Mara region. Specific attributes of the community under study are also taken into account in addition to the correlation between the information source and the message.Item Environmental Degradation under Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining in Tanzania: Can Innovations in Institutional Framework Help?(2012-09) Mwakaje, Agnes G.Artisan and small-scale mining (ASM) plays an important role in employment and livelihoods in Tanzania. Estimates suggest that over 1,000,000 Tanzanians are engaged in mining, more than 90 percent of whom are in ASM. However, most ASM activities are taking place using rudimental technology causing negative impact on the environment and human health. Despite having laws and regulations in the mining sector in the country, the enforcement at the ASM has remained ineffective. There is a concern that the institutional framework governing the Mining Sector is not suitable for ASM and innovations are required to effectively governing the ASM activities. This study is a contribution towards achieving this goal. The study conducted a review of the institutional framework governing ASM, focusing on the gold subsector. It also undertook a comprehensive review of literature on ASM. In addition, about 100 ASM operators were interviewed in Nyarugusu area, Geita district. The study intended to highlight the strengths and weaknesses of the current institutional framework for ASM operators and suggests innovations to inform the policy and decision making process on how best ASM could enhance livelihoods without degrading the environment. It also adds to the body of knowledge on the current debate of environmental degradation under ASM through publication. The major conclusion is that the current institutional framework is not conducive for ASM activities and innovations are necessary for ASM operators to comply. Most of the decision making and compliancy regulatory bodies are centralised, a high number of ASM operators are not aware of the existing institutional framework and most of the regulations are not compatible with the ASM activities. These include the requirement for ASM operators to register their activities at the head quarters of the Ministry, the condition that each ASM operator to undertake environmental impact assessment (EIA) in his/her plot, insufficient involvement of local authorities at village and district levels to regulate the ASM activities, poor working technology and lack of ASM organisations/associations. The following innovations are recommended: decentralising ASM regulations to village and district levels including capacity building at these levels, introducing block EIA and management plans to accommodate a number of ASM operators and for joint responsibilities, strengthening cooperatives and associations, facilitating ASM operators access to credit and link ASM with medium/large scale mining and providing friendly formalisation processes.Item Factors Influencing Willingness to Pay for Watershed Services in Lower Moshi, Pangani Basin, Tanzania(2013) Ndetewio, Paul I.; Mwakaje, Agnes G.; Mujwahuzi, Mark; Ngana, J.This study investigated factors that influence the Willingness to Pay (WTP) for watershed services and conservation in Tanzania with the case study of the Lower Moshi Irrigation Scheme in Pangani Basin, Tanzania. A total of 99 farmers were selected randomly from the Mabogini ward for interviews using a Contingent Valuation Method. There were also focus group and key informants’ interviews. Structured and semi-structured questionnaires were used to gather information. Data were analysed using multi-linear regression model. Results showed that 80% of the respondents showed a WTP for additional cost of watershed services. Findings further showed that parameters of education, farm size and household income were found to be statistically significant at p=0.05. However, there was inverse relationship between WTP and farm distance, probably due to the perceived risk of decreasing water availability as distance to the water intake increases. The results also showed R2 = 0.845 suggesting that as high as 84.5% of the variation in the dependent variable (WTP) had been explained by the variables included in the model. For effective WTP, the observed weaknesses should be addressed. These include environmental education, participatory basin management approach and good governance of basin resourcesItem Gender, Poverty and Access to Socio-Economic Services in Un-Planned and Un-Serviced Urban Areas of Dar Es Salaam, Tanzania(2010) Mwakaje, Agnes G.It is estimated that approximately 30% of the world’s households are headed by women and it is widely agreed that women-headed households are more common in urban than in rural areas. The literature on gender and socioeconomic issues reveal high inequalities. This study examined gender differences with regard to access to socioeconomic services in unplanned and un-serviced areas of the Dar es Salaam City. Data were collected from 1,182 sample households selected randomly. Results show no significant difference in incomes and access to socioeconomic services, although women headed households were slightly less accessed than men respondents in accessing socio-economic services.Item The impact of climate change and variability on agro-pastoralists’ economy in Tanzania(2013) Mwakaje, Agnes G.Tanzania has a total of 17.4 m cattle and 98% of this, is in the hands of pastoralists and agro-pastoralists involving about 2.2 m people. The ongoing climate change (CC) is likely to have affecting pastoralists more negatively because they are already living in marginal lands. Apart from this hypothetical thinking there has been inadequate empirical evidence to substantiate this. Also the impact of the adaptation and mitigation strategies undertaken by the pastoralists to address CC has not been analyzed critically. The main objective of this study was to come up with an understanding of the impact of CC on pastoralists’ economy in Tanzania. A total of 200 households were selected randomly from Ngorongoro District. There were also focus group and key informant discussions. The results from this study will inform policy makers, donors and the pastoralists. The study revealed a high level of livestock death due to mainly drought. Moving to urban areas for livelihood alterna- tives has disrupted families and is preventing children from attending school because they are looking after the cattle. Moving livestock to other parts of the country has caused conflicts over resource use, especially with farmers, to the point of threatening peace in some places.Item The Impact of Equitable Payment for Watershed Services Scheme on Livelihoods in Tanzania(ISDS LLC, 2013) Mussa, Kassim R.; Mwakaje, Agnes G.Care International and WWF initiated Equitable Payments for Watershed Services (EPWS) scheme. The Scheme aimed at modifying unsustainable land use practices to conserve watershed areas in the Uluguru Mountains and improving the livelihoods of the communities. This study investigates the outcome of the project and this study is a response to this. A total of 120 households were selected randomly from 3 villages under the Scheme. There was also a consultation with focus groups and key informants. Structured and semi-structured questionnaires were used to collect information and analysed using Chi-square and Choice Model techniques. Findings revealed a significant improvement in social capital and land productivity (p=0.05) while access to non-timber forest products and wildlife resources were reported to have deteriorated. Also livelihood capital of financial, human and physical did not improve among the EPWS participating respondents. The most preferred incentive package by the respondents was mentioned to be sustainable land use, access to forest goods and services, improved extension services, access to inputs and agricultural commodity markets. For sustainability of the EPWS programmes, incentives packages should reflect the opportunity cost of abandoning the ongoing land use practices by the communities. The package should also take into account people’s choice and preferences.Item The Impact of Gasfier Stoves Use on Socio-Economic and Environment in Tanzania: The Case of Arusha and Moshi Municipalities(Lifescience Global, 2013) Mwakaje, Agnes G.This study examined the socio-economic and environmental impact of the adoption of gasfier stoves by households in Arusha and Moshi towns in Tanzania. A total of 55 respondents were selected purposely from the gasfier stoves. For comparative purposes another 55 charcoal users were selected randomly for interview making a total sample of 110. There were also focus group consultations and key informant interviews. Structured and semi-structured questionnaires were used to collect data, which were analysed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences. The results show that the respondents who were using gasfier stoves had significant reduction (p=0.001) in the cost of energy for cooking compared to charcoal stove users by spending only T.shs 13,396 per month compared to T.shs 36,932 for charcoal users. The use of gasfier stoves also had a positive impact on the environment. Findings show that by using gasfier stoves 15.4 ha were saved from deforestation per annum and about 365.4.tonnes of carbon were saved for sequestration an act that reduces carbon emissions and global warming. Nevertheless, despite the impressive performance of gasfier stoves for cooking, the rate of adoption has remained low. The main reason for this was reported to be the high price, poor quality of the pellets and unfriendly usability. The adoption of gasfier stoves could only be enhanced by addressing these constraining factors.Item Impact of Microfinance on Smallholder Farm Productivity in Tanzania: The Case of Iramba District(2013) Girabi, Frank; Mwakaje, Agnes G.Over the past two decades, there has been a high promotion of microfinance institutions (MFI) in Tanzania. In 1990s there was only 825 MFI which increased to 1,875 in 2005. Currently, the country is estimated to have more than 5000 MFI. The promise of MFI lies in the belief that microfinance could empower poor people to fight against poverty through easy access to credit. But what is the actual impact of MFI on the ground? Empirical evidence in this area is inconclusive. The objective of this study was to investigate the impact of microfinance on agricultural productivity by smallholder farmers in Tanzania with the case study of Iramba District. A total of 98 respondents were selected randomly from credit beneficiaries (CB) and noncredit beneficiaries (NCB). The collected data were analyzed through descriptive statistics and multiple regression analysis. Findings revealed that, CB realized high agricultural productivity compared to the NCB respondents. This is partly because the CB were relatively better in accessing markets for agricultural commodities, use of inputs and adoption of improved farming technologies. The major factors hindering smallholder farmers’ access to credit were reported to be lack of information, inadequate credit supply, high interest rates and defaulting.