Browsing by Author "Crawford, Brian"

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    Aquaculture Research and Development as an Entry-Point and Contributor to Natural Resources and Coastal Management
    (Taylor & Francis, 2010) Crawford, Brian; Celia, Maria; Portella, Maria; Ellis, Simon; Jiddawi, Narriman; Mmochi, Aviti J.; Camacho, Eladio; Dominguez, Guillermo Rodriguez; Rodriguez, Gustavo; Francis, Julius; Leclair, Carlos; Oze, Agnes; Hernandez, Nelvia; Sandoval, Erick; Aarroszewska, Marta; Dabrowski, Konrad
    Integrated coastal management (ICM) is often defined as some variant of the definition provided by Cicin-Sain and Knecht (1998, 11) as “a continuous and dynamic process by which decisions are taken for the sustainable use, development, and protection of coastal and marine areas and resources. ICM acknowledges the interrelationships that exist among coastal and ocean uses and the environments they potentially affect, and is designed to overcome the fragmentation inherent in the sectoral management approach. ICM is multipurpose oriented, it analyzes and addresses implications of development, conflicting uses, and interrelationships between physical processes and human activities, and it promotes linkages and harmonization among sectoral coastal and ocean activities.” Aquaculture is a wide-ranging economic development activity involving culture of marine or brackish water plants, animals, or microorganisms at some point in their life cycle. As such, aquaculture has traditionally occupied a primary place among development activities in coastal areas, and is rapidly expanding to supply protein-rich foods and other products, filling the gaps left by the decline of capture fisheries as the world population continues to grow. Growth is also expected as culture technologies and species development increasingly make new forms of aquaculture, such as off-shore systems, feasible. Aquaculture supplies approximately 47% of the world’s seafood supply and is the fastest growing form of animal husbandry at 6.9% per annum. Per capita production rose from 0.7 kg in 1970 to 7.8 kg in 2006 producing 66.7 million tons of plant and animal material with a value of $85.9 billion (Food and Agriculture Organization [FAO], 2008). Consideration of aquaculture within the context of ICM is critical as both become more important. Changes brought on by climate change will also affect the role of aquaculture along the world’s coasts, major rivers and watersheds. Aquaculture is often regarded primarily in a negative light when considered by coastal management programs, often ignored completely. Aquaculture is also often viewed as an “industry” responsible for habitat destruction, competing with other economic activities, displacing local peoples and their traditional occupations, and as an inefficient use of inputs and resources. Use of the term “industry” is misleading as very few forms of aquaculture are sufficiently large and consolidate, and geographically or structurally coherent enough to merit this term. Shrimp or salmon culture may merit this designation. Most aquaculture is conducted on a small to medium scale. FAO estimates that 80% of world aquaculture production is produced by smallholders (Subasinghe & Phillips, 2005). In fact, the lack of cohesiveness and sectoral organization is a major challenge for inclusion in natural resources management programs. Social and economic impacts are also commonly alleged to occur. This is a more problematic topic than the issue of environmental impacts since social or economic inequities or injustices are rarely well documented and are difficult to distinguish from similar issues occurring throughout a particular nation’s socioeconomic milieu. The environmental, social, and economic costs and benefits of aquaculture are highly nuanced and variable depending on which region, species, and form of aquaculture is practiced. The authors’ intention is not to debate whether or not impacts occur, to what extent or which sectors within aquaculture Downloaded By: [University of Rhode Island] At: 17:59 1 June 2010 240 M.
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    Aquaculture Research and Development as an Entry-Point and Contributor to Natural Resources and Coastal Management
    (Taylor & Francis, 2010-05) Haws, Maria; Crawford, Brian; Portella, Maria Célia; Ellis, Simon; Jiddawi, Narriman Saleh; Mmochi, Aviti J.; Gaxiola-Camacho, Eladio; Dominguez, Guillermo Rodriguez; Rodriguez, Gustavo; Francis, Julius; Leclair, Carlos Rivas; Coze, Agnes Saborio
    Recent, fervent international dialogue concerning the existence and magnitude of impacts associated with aquaculture has had both positive and negative outcomes. Aquaculture stakeholders have become sensitized to requirements for improved environmental management of aquaculture. On the other hand, in some cases aquaculture development has been negatively affected by some of the unwarranted and unproved allegations to the detriment of the stakeholders most in need of aquaculture development (i.e., resource users, particularly the poor, who are dependent on natural resources). These resource users are targeted by, and directly influence biodiversity and conservation agendas; hence the need to understand how to gain their active participation. This discussion focuses on examples of how aquaculture research and development can be a useful tool or strategy for resource management initiatives and provide tangible positive including increased stakeholder participation and cooperation, offering alternatives to resource extraction and use in otherwise difficult or intransigent resource management conflicts.
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    A Comparative Analysis of the SocioEconomics of Seaweed Farming in Two Villages along the Mainland Coast of Tanzania
    (Western Indian Ocean Marine Science Association, 2007) Crawford, Brian; Shalli, Mwanahija S.
    Seaweed farming has become a well developed industry in Tanzania over the last decade. It is a significant export earner as well as an income and employment generator in coastal communities where it is practiced. The Tanzanian government has called for the aggressive expansion of seaweed farming in the recently adopted national Seaweed Development Strategic Plan (SDSP 2005). It targets the expansion of the “cottonni” variety of seaweed which commands a higher farm gate price than the “spinosum” variety. However, spinosum is more widely grown within the country at present than cottonnii which faces the die-off problems, The die off cycle of the cottonnii variety typically occurs after the heavy rainy season (March to May) and most likely due to water salinity, sedimentation from run-off and/or temperature differentials during this period (Mmochi et al. 2005). In order to help promote the expansion of the seaweed sector, a better understanding of how coastal communities adapt and incorporate seaweed farming into the mix of household livelihood activities is needed along with assessments of the relative advantages and disadvantages of the two varieties of farmed seaweed. In addition, seaweed farming is often promoted as an “alternative” livelihood that can help reduce pressure on overexploited nearshore and small-scale fisheries. However, few empirical studies have been conducted to assess the degree that seaweed farming actually functions as an alternative. This paper attempts to shed light on these issues. It compares two communities, one which exclusively grows the cottonni variety of seaweed and another that grows only the spinosum variety of seaweed.
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    A Comparative Economic Analysis of Two Seaweed Farming Methods in Tanzania
    (Western Indian Ocean Marine Science Association, 2007-01) Msuya, Flower E.; Shalli, Mwanahija S.; Sullivan, Karen A.; Crawford, Brian; Tobey, James; Mmochi, Aviti J.
    Seaweed farming has become an established aquaculture industry in Tanzania over the last decade. It is a significant export earner as well as an income and employment generator in coastal communities where it is practiced. It is a sustainable form of aquaculture that has particularly benefited women and contributes to the governments’ poverty alleviation program (Bryceson 2002). In Zanzibar, it has become a major source of income for women farmers (Wallevik and Jiddawi 2001). While increasing workload, it also has increased their economic purchasing power as well as created more social empowerment of women (Ako 1997). The Tanzanian government has called for the aggressive expansion of seaweed farming in the recently adopted Seaweed Development Strategic Plan (SDSP 2005). The plan calls for the expansion of Kappaphycus alvarezii commercially known as “cottonii” (Figure 1) which commands a higher farm gate price than Eucheuma denticulatum, commercially known as “spinosum” (Figure 2). However, spinosum is more widely grown within the country since cottonii is more environmentally sensitive, leading to disease problems known as “ice-ice” and die-offs (Doty and Alvarez 1975, Uyenco et al. 1981, Collén et al. 1995, Largo 1998). Farmers have traditionally farmed cottonii using the peg and line method but the mortality rate can be high and following a die-off farmers can spend up to 6 months trying to produce seed rather than farming seaweed (Mmochi et al. 2005, Msuya 2006a). To combat the problem of cottonii die-off that is experienced when the peg and line method is used in Tanzania, the Sustainable Coastal Communities and Ecosystems (SUCCESS) Program has introduced the deep-water floating line method to the Msichoke group in Mlingotini village, Bagamoyo District, Tanzania (Mmochi et al. 2005, Msuya 2006a, 2006b). This method has been recommended as a way to increase seaweed production in Tanzania (Rice et al. 2006).
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    An Economic AnaLysis of Milkfish Faing in Tanzania: Potential for Economic Development and Policy Issues
    (2007) Sullivan, Karen A; Mmochi, Aviti J; Crawford, Brian
    Milkfish culture has been practiced for over a hundred years in Asia, particularly in the Philippines, Indonesia, and China but it is just beginning to become a mariculture activity in the Western Indian Ocean (WIO) Region. For instance, Tanzania is pioneering commercial and backyard milkfish farming and is learning from experiences in Asia. There have already been a number of attempts at experimental and pilot stages to culture milkfish in Tanzania (Dubi et al. 2004). A number of academic institutions are involved in milkfish farming experiments. The Institute of Marine Sciences (IMS) at the University of Dar es Salaam for example has been involved in milkfish pond aquaculture consistently since 1996 (Mmochi et al. 2005). However, milkfish farming has not taken off on a commercial scale by private operators for several reasons, including a need for more information on the economic and marketing aspects of milkfish farming and a lack of farm level trials of practical rearing methods and pond designs conducive to commercial production. Additionally, careful attention must be given to pond construction and management, which if not done properly can constrain the ability to produce viable milkfish crops and some of the initial experimental trials previously conducted did not use commercial pond designs or were improperly built. However, Tanzania’s rural coastal communities face many economic development challenges with few alternatives readily apparent. Development of small-scale mariculture has been recommended as one way to improve the quality of life for coastal Tanzanians by increasing employment, household incomes, and food security (Rice et al. 2006). Milkfish (Chanos chanos) is native to Tanzania and is found in the wild but until only recently has its culture been attempted, based on adapting longstanding Asian practices to Tanzania. For instance, in Unguja Island there are several small ponds in Makoba owned by the Prisons Department. Two farmers in Pemba Island have been culturing milkfish and mullet for the last ten years and several farmers have been assisted by the Sustainable Costal Communities and Ecosystems (SUCCESS) Program – Mr. Mushi in Bagamoyo, who has been operating for several years, Mr. Kirago and Mkadam in Mpafu, Mkuranga who have harvested at least twice before their ponds were washed out by extreme high tides, and a community group in Byuni village of Pangani. There are also 11 groups of people who own ponds in Mtwara, one pond in Kilwa and Rufiji and one in Machui, Tanga who have harvested at least once. There are several other pond sites in different stages of construction and some that have been declared a failure due to poor siting and construction. Recent mainland trials conducted by the SUCCESS Program have proven ponds can be built in barren salt pan areas with a harvest after just six months of over 1 MT of fish per hectare and revenues close to US$ 2000. SUCCESS household surveys show median coastal household incomes of approximately $1000/year. Thus, a one hectare pond could double household income. Over 50,000 hectares of saline areas hold potential as sites for milkfish ponds, making the long term income potential nationally significant. Within a decade or so, increases in high quality protein food supply could easily reach 10,000 MT or more annually, employing thousands of persons, increasing incomes of thousands of coastal households and generating over US$ 20 million annually in crop value. In light of the opportunity that milkfish farming presents, in 2005 through 2006, the SUCCESS Program constructed commercial style milkfish ponds and conducted production trials in cooperation with several owners of salt farms in Mkuranga, Bagamoyo and with a community group in Pangani.